Passive Sampling Techniques for Monitoring Environmental Pollutants: A Review
Keywords:
Passive sampling; Environmental monitoring; Persistent organic pollutants; Heavy metals; Emerging contaminants; Time-weighted average; Sampling rate; Calibration.Abstract
Environmental pollution associated with industrialization, urbanization and other anthropogenic activities has increased the need for reliable and cost-effective monitoring. This review critically examines passive sampling principles, performance and applications across air, water, soil and sediment, with attention to volatile organic compounds (VOCs), persistent organic pollutants (POPs), metals and emerging contaminants. A systematic narrative literature review was undertaken using Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect and Google Scholar. Searches focused mainly on peer-reviewed studies published from 2015 to 2026, supplemented by seminal earlier studies; approximately 120–150 records were screened and 85 studies were retained after title, abstract and full-text assessment against relevance and methodological-reporting criteria. The review compares devices including SPMDs, POCIS and DGT and evaluates how temperature, flow, deployment duration, sampler design and biofouling affect uptake and calibration. Passive sampling can provide time-weighted average (TWA) estimates during an appropriate uptake phase, but it does not universally outperform active sampling: suitability depends on the contaminant, environmental medium and monitoring objective. Reported sampling-rate differences of up to approximately twofold are context-specific rather than a universal property and may arise when field conditions differ from calibration conditions or when sampler design and hydrodynamics vary (Liu et al., 2013; Jiang et al., 2025; McLagan et al., 2025). The review distinguishes TWA concentrations from freely dissolved concentrations and operationally defined bioavailable fractions, and identifies calibration, standardization and evidence gaps in resource-limited settings. Future priorities include field validation, transparent reporting and locally appropriate monitoring protocols.
References
1. Abdoulkader, M. S., & Komai, K. (2025). A modified Fick’s First Law incorporating a flux correction factor for nutrient diffusion in intertidal sediments. Water, 17(20), 2958. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17202958
2. Adesakin, T. A., Adedeji, A. A., Aduwo, I. A., Oyewale, A. T., & Adewole, H. A. (2026). Macroinvertebrate diversity, bioavailability, and bioaccumulation of heavy metals in freshwater bodies of Southwest Nigeria. Environmental Pollutants and Bioavailability
3. Ahrens, L., Daneshvar, A., Lau, A. E., & Kreuger, J. (2016). Characterization and Application of Passive Samplers for Monitoring of Pesticides in Water. Journal of visualized experiments : JoVE, (114), 54053. https://doi.org/10.3791/54053
4. Alani, R. A., Zhao, S., Liu, X., Akinrinade, O. E., Agunbiade, F. O., Ayejuyo, O. O., & Zhang, G. (2021). Concentrations, profiles and exposure risks of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in passive air samples from Lagos, Nigeria. Atmospheric Pollution Research, 12(9), 101162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2021.101162
5. Althomali, R. H., Abbood, M. A., Saleh, E. A. M., Djuraeva, L., Abdullaeva, B. S., Habash, R. T., Alhassan, M. S., Alawady, A. H. R., Alsaalamy, A. H., & Najafi, M. L. (2024). Exposure to heavy metals and neurocognitive function in adults: A systematic review. Environmental Sciences Europe, 36, Article 18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-024-00843-7
6. Apuyor, S. E., Apuyor, K. E., & Okorodudu, E. O. (2024). Hydrochemical assessment of Delta Central (South Southern Nigeria) aquifers. International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovation, 11(9), 189–205. https://doi.org/10.51244/IJRSI.2024.1109019
7. Aravind Kumar, J., Krithiga, T., Sathish, S., Annam Renita, A., Prabu, D., Lokesh, S., Geetha, R., Karthick Raja Namasivayam, S., & Sillanpää, M. (2022). Persistent organic pollutants in water resources: Fate, occurrence, characterization and risk analysis. Science of the Total Environment, 831, 154808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154808
8. Ashraf, M. A. (2017). Persistent organic pollutants (POPs): A global issue, a global challenge. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 24, 4223–4227. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015- 5225-9
9. Avis, W. & Bartington, S. (2020). Monitoring Air Quality in Low Income and Lower Middle-Income Countries. K4D Helpdesk Report. Brighton, UK: Institute of Development Studies.
10. Balaram, V., Copia, L., Saravana Kumar, U., Miller, J., & Chidambaram, S. (2023). Pollution of water resources and application of ICP-MS techniques for monitoring and management—A comprehensive review. Geosystems and Geoenvironment, 2(4), 100210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geogeo.2023.100210
11. Barah, A., Kumar, R., Singh, P., & Verma, S. (2025). Advances in passive sampling techniques for environmental monitoring: Mechanisms, applications, and future perspectives. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 197, 215.
12. Becker, B., Smith, J., & Müller, F. (2024). Passive sampling rates and environmental monitoring: Insights into kinetic uptake in water and air. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 196, 456. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-34460
13. Boahen, E., Owusu, L., & Adjei Anim, S. O. (2025). A comprehensive review of emerging environmental contaminants of global concern. Discover Environment, 3, 144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44274-025-00259
14. Cartmell, D., & Marshall, J. (2023). The role of passive sampling in environmental monitoring – theory & recent advancements. Annals of Work Exposures and Health, 67(Suppl_1), i33–i34. https://doi.org/10.1093/annweh/wxac087.090
15. Chatterjee, A., Pál, L., Lovas, S., McKee, M., Dioszegi, J., Kovacs, N., and Szucs, S. (2026). Assessment of health risks from exposure to indoor volatile organic compounds in European educational buildings. Sci Rep 16, 6554 (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-37072-2
16. Damstra, T. (2002). Potential effects of certain persistent organic pollutants and endocrine disrupting chemicals on the health of children. Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology, 40(4), 457–465. https://doi.org/10.1081/CLT-120006748
17. David, E., & Niculescu, V.-C. (2021). Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as environmental pollutants: Occurrence and mitigation using nanomaterials. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(24), 13147. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182413147
18. Domínguez-García, P., Ortiz Almirall, X., & Gómez-Canela, C. (2025). A POCIS-based approach for the monitoring of pharmaceuticals in wastewater treatment plants: Calibration and deployment challenges. Environmental Pollution, 367, 125641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2025.125641
19. Egbuna, C., Amadi, C. N., Patrick Iwuanyanwu, K. C., Ezzat, S. M., Awuchi, C. G., Ugonwa, P. O., & Orisakwe, O. E. (2021). Emerging pollutants in Nigeria: A systematic review. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology, 85, 103638. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2021.103638
20. Ewubare, P., Aliyu, S. O., Michael, I., et al. (2024). An academic review on heavy metals in the environment: effects on soil, plants, human health, and possible solutions. American Journal of Environmental Economics, 3(1), 67–78.
21. Fitzgerald, L., & Wikoff, D. S. (2014). Persistent organic pollutants. In Encyclopedia of Toxicology (3rd ed.). Elsevier.
22. Fuchte, H. E., Schäffer, A., Booij, K., & Smith, K. E. C. (2020). Kinetic passive sampling: In situ calibration using the contaminant mass measured in parallel samplers with different thicknesses. Environmental Science & Technology, 54(24), 15759–15767. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c04437
23. García Garcinuño, R., Marcé, R. M., Vallecillos, L., & Borrull, F. (2024). Passive sampling of high production volume chemicals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban atmospheres near petrochemical sites: Uptake rate determination and application. Environmental Pollution. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2024.124697
24. Geisling, K. L., Tashima, M. K., Girman, J. R., Miksch, R. R., & Rappaport, S. M. (1982). A passive sampling device for determining formaldehyde in indoor air. Environment International, 8(1–6), 153– 158. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-4120(82)90023
25. Ghorbani Gorji, S., Hawker, D. W., Mackie, R., Higgins, C. P., Bowles, K., Li, Y., & Kaserzon, S. (2023). Sorption affinity and mechanisms of per and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) with commercial sorbents: Implications for passive sampling. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 457, 131688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131688
26. Ghosh, U., Burgess, R. M., & Smith, B. (2023). Passive sampling in sediments: Next-generation approaches for ecological risk evaluation. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 195, 1092– 1108.
27. Ghosh, U., Driscoll, S. K., Burgess, R. M., Jonker, M. T. O., Reible, D., Gobas, F., Choi, Y., Apitz, S. E., Maruya, K. A., Gala, W. R., Mortimer, M., & Beegan, C. (2014). Passive sampling methods for contaminated sediments: Practical guidance for selection, calibration, and implementation. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management, 10(2), 210–223.
28. Glanzmann, V., Booij, K., Reymond, N., Weyermann, C., & Estoppey, N. (2022). Determining the mass transfer coefficient of the water boundary layer at the surface of aquatic integrative passive samplers. Environmental Science & Technology, 56(10), 6391–6398. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c08088
29. Godéré, M., Malleret, L., Höhener, P., & Doumenq, P. (2022). Passive sampling of chlorinated paraffins by silicone: Focus on diffusion and silicone–water partition coefficients. Chemosphere, 287(Part 2), 132201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132201
30. Godlewska, K., Stepnowski, P., & Paszkiewicz, M. (2020). Application of the Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Sampler for isolation of environmental micropollutants: A review. Critical Reviews in Analytical Chemistry, 50(1), 1–28.
31. Godlewska, K., Stepnowski, P., & Paszkiewicz, M. (2021). Pollutant analysis using passive samplers: Principles, sorbents, calibration, and applications. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 19, 465–520. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-020-01079-6
32. Ha, Y., Koo, Y., Kim, D., Kim, P.-G., Song, E., Yoo, H. J., & Kwon, J.-H (2023). The use of face masks to reduce inhalation exposure to reactive disinfectants. Atmospheric Environment, 311, 120023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2023.120023
33. Habtewold, J., McCarthy, D., McBean, E., Law, I., Goodridge, L., Habash, M., & Murphy, H. M. (2022). Passive sampling, a practical method for wastewater based surveillance of SARS CoV 2. Environmental Research, 204, 112058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.112058
34. Harman, C., Bøyum, O., Tollefsen, K. E., Thomas, K., & Grung, M. (2008). Uptake of some selected aquatic pollutants in semipermeable membrane devices (SPMDs) and the polar organic chemical integrative sampler (POCIS). Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 10(2), 239-247. https://doi.org/10.1039/b714725b
35. Hayes, E. K., & Gagnon, G. A. (2024). From capture to detection: A critical review of passive sampling techniques for pathogen surveillance in water and wastewater. Water Research, 261, Article 122024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2024.122024
36. Herkert, N. J., Spak, S. N., Smith, A., Schuster, J. K., Harner, T., Martinez, A., & Hornbuckle, K. C. (2018). Calibration and evaluation of PUF-PAS sampling rates across the Global Atmospheric Passive Sampling (GAPS) network. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts.
37. Hong, H., Lv, J., Deng, A., Tang, Y., & Liu, Z. (2024). A review of experimental assessment processes of material resistance to marine and freshwater biofouling. Journal of Environmental Management, 357, 120766. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.120766
38. Jadhav, S., Bamb, A., Gosavi, A., Sirdeshmukh, V., & Tagad, C. K. (2026). Understanding the toxicity, exposure pathways, and health risks of emerging contaminants. In N. M. Mubarak et al. (Eds.), Advances in treatment methods towards emerging contaminants (pp. 119–134). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-34270-7.00022-5
39. Jaywant, S. A., & Arif, K. M. (2024). Remote sensing techniques for water quality monitoring: A review. Sensors, 24(24), 8041. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24248041
40. Jiang, P., Xu, Y., Rao, K., Ma, M., & Wang, Z. (2025). Decoding dynamic water concentration fluctuations in passive sampling: Triphasic modeling-experiment-field validation with PRC-based stratification. Water research, 287(Pt A), 124381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2025.124381
41. Jonker, M. T. O., van der Heijden, S. A., Kotte, M., & Smedes, F. (2015). Quantifying the effects of temperature and salinity on partitioning of hydrophobic organic chemicals to silicone rubber passive samplers. Environmental Science & Technology, 49(11), 6791–6799.
42. Iwegbue, C. M. A., Onyeyela, K. N., Rueben-Okoye, M., Odali, E. W., & Martincigh, B. S. (2026). Cobwebs (spider webs) as a proxy for monitoring polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in indoor environments. Environmental Chemistry, 23(4), EN25106. https://doi.org/10.1071/EN25106
43. Joyce, A. S., & Burgess, R. M. (2018). Using performance reference compounds to compare mass transfer calibration methodologies in passive samplers deployed in the water column. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 37(8), 2089–2097. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.4167
44. Kadadou, D., Tizani, L., Alsafar, H., & Hasan, S. W. (2024). Analytical methods for determining environmental contaminants of concern in water and wastewater. MethodsX, 12, 102582. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mex.2024.102582
45. Kalina, J., White, K. B., Scheringer, M., Přibylová, P., Kukučka, P., Audy, O., Martiník, J., & Klánová, J. (2022). Comparability of semivolatile organic compound concentrations from co-located active and passive air monitoring networks in Europe. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts, 24(6), 898–909. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2EM00007E
46. Karamati, A., Singh, R., & Olaniyi, T. (2024). Advances in passive sampler materials and their performance under biofouling conditions. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances, 21, 100812. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39353231
47. Karásková, P., et al. (2023). Emerging materials in environmental passive sampling. Chemosphere, 320, 138090.
48. Kaserzon, S. L., Vijayasarathy, S., Bräunig, J., Mueller, L., Hawker, D. W., Thomas, K. V., & Mueller, J. F. (2019). Calibration and validation of a novel passive sampling device for monitoring PFAS in groundwater. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 366, 423–431.
49. Kiki, C., Ahlonsou, E. D., Chabi, K., & Adéoyé, A. B. E. (2025). Persistent organic pollutants from plastics: Sources, environmental monitoring, toxicity, and remediation strategies. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1011788
50. Kim, S. J., Lee, H. Y., Lee, S. J., & Choi, S. D. (2023). Passive air sampling of VOCs, O3, NO2, and SO2 in the large industrial city of Ulsan, South Korea: spatial-temporal variations, source identification, and ozone formation potential. Environmental science and pollution research international, 30(60), 125478–125491. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-31109-z
51. Kinross, J. H., & Hageman, K. J. (2019). Passive air sampling of organic contaminants: Principles, calibration, and applications. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts, 21(2), 215–228.
52. Kiwfo, K., Grudpan, K., Held, A., & Frenzel, W. (2024). Smartphone based color evaluation of passive samplers for gases: A review. Atmosphere, 15(451). https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15040451
53. Klánová, J., Kohoutek, J., Hamplová, L., Urbanová, P., & Holoubek, I. (2006). Passive air sampler as a tool for long-term air pollution monitoring: Part 1. Performance assessment for seasonal and spatial variations. Environmental Pollution, 144(2), 393–405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2005.12.009
54. Kwon, J.-H., Ha, Y., Seo, J.-H., & Kim, P.-G. (2025). Use of passive samplers for estimating the exposure to household chemicals: A critical review. Indoor Air. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1155/ina/9930242
55. Lach, G., & Okoniewska, E. (2024). Passive sampling in environmental monitoring: Diffusion processes and sorption mechanisms. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 31, 11234– 11250
56. Lai, F. Y., Rauert, C., Gobelius, L., & Ahrens, L. (2019). A critical review on passive sampling in air and water for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 121, 115311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2018.11.009
57. Lammel, G., Nillius, B., Helleis, F., Holubová Šmejkalová, A., Kukučka, P., Martiník, J., Přibylová, P., Prokeš, R., Shahpoury, P., Štěpánek, D., & Vinkler, J. (2025). Field validation of a novel passive air sampler and monitoring of semivolatile organic pollutants in the remote marine and continental boundary layer. Atmospheric Pollution Research, 16(5), 102460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2025.102460
58. Laoye, B., & Olagbemide, P. (2025). Heavy metal contamination: Sources, health impacts, and sustainable mitigation strategies with insights from Nigerian case studies. F1000Research, 14, 134. https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.160148.4
59. Li, H., Ma, J., Yamamoto, Y., Kameda, T., & Yu, G. (2023). Sorbent selection and uptake kinetics of emerging pollutants in passive water samplers. Environmental Science & Technology, 57(15), 6023– 6035. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.3c00541
60. Li, Y., Chen, B., Yang, S., Jiao, Z., Zhang, M., Yang, Y., & Gao, Y. (2025). Advances in environmental pollutant detection techniques: Enhancing public health monitoring and risk assessment. Environment International, 197, 109365. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2025.109365
61. Li, Y., Yang, W., Zheng, X.-q., Yao, C., & Wu, Y. (2021). Combining passive sampling with toxicity testing to evaluate potential ecotoxicological effects of pharmaceuticals in wastewater-impacted rivers. Water Science and Engineering, 14(3), 201–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wse.2021.08.009
62. Li, Y., Zhan, F., Su, Y., Lei, Y. D., Zhou, Z., Abbatt, J. P. D., Hung, H., & Wania, F. (2024). Uptake behavior of polycyclic aromatic compounds during field calibrations of the XAD based passive air sampler across seasons and locations. Atmospheric Measurement Techniques, 17, 715–729. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-17-715-2024
63. Li, Y., Zhao, Y., & Wang, K. (2023). Application of diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT) for measuring labile metals in soils and sediments. Environmental Science & Technology, 57(3), 1574– 1582.
64. Lim, E. Y., & Kim, G.-D. (2024). Particulate matter-induced emerging health effects associated with oxidative stress and inflammation. Antioxidants, 13(10), 1256. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox13101256
65. Liu, H.-H., Wong, C. S., & Zeng, E. Y. (2013). Recognizing the limitations of performance reference compound (PRC)-calibration technique in passive water sampling. Environmental Science & Technology, 47(18), 10104–10105. https://doi.org/10.1021/es403353d
66. Liu, X., Sathishkumar, K., Zhang, H., Saxena, K. K., Zhang, F., Naraginti, S., Anbarasu, K., Rajendiran, R., Rajasekar, A., & Guo, X. (2024). Frontiers in environmental cleanup: Recent advances in remediation of emerging pollutants from soil and water. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances, 16, 100461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazadv.2024.100461
67. Liu, X., Zhang, Y., & Chen, B. (2024). Environmental factors affecting passive sampling rates and uptake kinetics: A comprehensive review. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 196, 182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-024-13182-0
68. Liu, Y., Digaletos, M., Ptacek, C. J., & Thomas, J. L. (2024). Active and passive sampling techniques in headwater streams to characterize acesulfame-K, pharmaceutical and phosphorus contamination from on-site wastewater disposal systems in Canadian rural hamlets. The Science of the total environment, 956, 177194.
69. Loive, J., Strandberg, B., Christensen, K., & Hagvall, L. (2024). Indoor air levels of polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAC) in public buildings with creosote-impregnated constructions: A pilot case study using passive samplers. Chemosphere, 352, 141240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.141240
70. Lydy, M. J., Landrum, P. F., Oen, A. M. P., Allinson, M., Smedes, F., Harwood, A. D., Li, H., Maruya, K. A., & Liu, J. (2014). Passive sampling methods for contaminated sediments: State of the science for organic contaminants. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management, 10(2), 167–178. https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.1503
71. Macías, D., Gómez, M. J., & Petrović, M. (2023). Passive sampling for monitoring emerging contaminants and associated biological effects in aquatic environments. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 164, 117102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2023.117102
72. Macías, M., et al. (2023). Appraisal on the role of passive sampling for more integrative frameworks on the environmental risk assessment of contaminants. Chemosphere, 324, 138352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138352
73. Mangotra, A., & Singh, S. K. (2024). Volatile organic compounds: A threat to the environment and health hazards to living organisms – A review. Journal of Biotechnology, 382, 51–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiotec.2023.12.013
74. Mathon, B., Ferreol, M., Togola, A., Lardy Fontan, S., Dabrin, A., Allan, I. J., & Staub, P. F. (2022). Polar organic chemical integrative samplers as an effective tool for chemical monitoring of surface waters — Results from one year monitoring in France. Science of the Total Environment, 824, 153549
75. Mayer, P., Holmstrup, M., & Gouliarmou, V. (2022). Passive sampling of soil and sediment porewater: From theory to application. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 146, 116476.
76. Medon, B., Pautler, B. G., Sweett, A., Roberts, J., Risacher, F. F., D’Agostino, L. A., Conder, J., Gauthier, J. R., Mabury, S. A., Patterson, A., McIsaac, P., Mitzel, R., Gilak Hakimabadi, S., & Pham, A. L.-T. (2023). A field-validated equilibrium passive sampler for the monitoring of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in sediment pore water and surface water. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts, 25, 980–995. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2EM00483F
77. Mejías-Molina, C., Llorca, M., & Barceló, D. (2023). Passive sampling combined with advanced analytical techniques for monitoring emerging contaminants in water systems. Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology, 9(2), 345–360. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2EW00867J
78. Melymuk, L., Bohlin-Nizzetto, P., Harner, T., White, K. B., Wang, X., Tominaga, M. Y., He, J., Li, J., Ma, J., Ma, W.-L., Aristizábal, B. H., Dreyer, A., Jiménez, B., Muñoz-Arnanz, J., Odabasi, M., Dumanoglu, Y., Yaman, B., Graf, C., Sweetman, A., & Klánová, J. (2021). Global intercomparison of polyurethane foam passive air samplers evaluating sources of variability in SVOC measurements. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts, 125, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2021.08.003
79. Menegário, A. A., Yabuki, L. N. M., Luko, K. S., Williams, P. N., & Blackburn, D. M. (2017). Use of diffusive gradients in thin films for in situ measurements: Progress in chemical fractionation, speciation, and bioavailability of metals in waters. Analytica Chimica Acta, 983, 54–66.
80. Mills, G. A., Greenwood, R., Vrana, B., Allan, I. J., & Ocelka, T. (2011). Measurement of environmental pollutants using passive sampling devices: A commentary on the current state of the art. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 13(11), 2979–2982. https://doi.org/10.1039/C1EM10680E
81. Moffett, J. W., Alexander, P. A., & Johnson, R. L. (2023). Field assessment of polyoxymethylene passive samplers for hydrophobic organic contaminants in sediments. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 42(9), 1970–1981.
82. Mohd Hanif, N., Limi Hawari, N. S. S., Othman, M., Abd Hamid, H. H., Ahamad, F., & Sahani, M. (2021). Ambient volatile organic compounds in tropical environments: potential sources, composition and impacts – a review. Chemosphere, 285, 131355.
83. Mula, V., Bogdanov, J., Petreska Stanoeva, J., Zeneli, L., & Zdravkovski, Z. (2024). Monitoring volatile organic compounds in air using passive sampling: Regional cross-border study between N. Macedonia and Kosovo. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 24, 230170. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.230170
84. Namieśnik, J., Zabiegała, B., Kot-Wasik, A., Partyka, M., & Wasik, A. (2005). Passive sampling and/or extraction techniques in environmental analysis: A review. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 381, 279–301.
85. Narvaez Valderrama JF, González JD, Porras J, Molina FJ. Field Calibration of Semipermeable Membrane Devices (SPMDs) for Persistent Organic Pollutant Monitoring in a Reservoir. Water. 2023; 15(7):1428. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15071428
86. Nguyen, T. L., Colman Lerner, J. E., & Hallquist, M. (2021). Comprehensive volatile organic compound measurements and their implications for ground level ozone formation in the two main urban areas of Vietnam. Science of the Total Environment, 766, 142607. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.142607
87. O’Keeffe, S., Devine, A., Clarke, B. O., & Mueller, J. F. (2025). Advances in passive sampling for monitoring emerging contaminants in aquatic systems. Science of the Total Environment, 912, 1698 76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2025.169876
88. Ogbeh, G. O., Ogunlele, A. O., Akinbile, C. O., & Iwar, R. T. (2025). Adsorption of organic micropollutants in water: A review of advances in modelling, mechanisms, adsorbents, and their characteristics. Environmental Engineering Research, 30(2), 230733. https://doi.org/10.4491/eer.2023.733
89. Okafor, V. N., Omokpariola, D. O., Tabugbo, B. I., & Okoliko, G. F. (2024). Ecological and health risk assessments of heavy metals in surface water sediments from Ifite Ogwari community in Southeastern Nigeria. Discover Environment, 2, 93.
90. Okeme, J. O., Lin, E. Z., Koelmel, J. P., Guo, A., Gao, D., & Godri Pollitt, K. J. (2026). Measuring the exposome: A practical guide for using wearable passive samplers to assess environmental influences. Exposome, 6(1), osag002. https://doi.org/10.1093/exposome/osag002
91. Okoye, C. O., Nyaruaba, R., Ita, R. E., Okon, S. U., Addey, C. I., Ebido, C. C., Opabunmi, A. O., Okeke, E. S., & Chukwudozie, K. I. (2022). Antibiotic resistance in the aquatic environment: Analytical techniques and interactive impact of emerging contaminants. En
92. Ola, I., Drebenstedt, C., Burgess, R. M., Tidwell, L., Anderson, K., Hoth, N., & Külls, C. (2024). Combined temperature and salinity effects on the passive sampling of PAHs with an assessment of impacts to petroleum toxicity. Environmental science. Processes & impacts, 26(11), 2076–2089. https://doi.org/10.1039/d4em00133h
93. Olise, F. S. (2025). Bridging data gaps in Nigerian air pollution: Coverage, infrastructural challenges, and public health implications. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 32, 23331–23350. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-025-36949-5
94. Oliveira, K., Guevara, M., Jorba, O., Petetin, H., Bowdalo, D., Tena, C., Montané Pinto, G., López, F., and Pérez García-Pando, C. (2024). On the uncertainty of anthropogenic aromatic volatile organic compound emissions: model evaluation and sensitivity analysis, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 24, 7137– 7177, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-24-7137-2024, 2024.
95. Onafeso, O. S., Akeredolu, F. A., & Sonibare, J. A. (2010). Measurement of ambient concentration of NO₂ in Obafemi Awolowo University campus using passive samplers. Ife Journal of Technology.
96. Petty, J. D., Orazio, C. E., Huckins, J. N., Gale, R. W., Lebo, J. A., Meadows, J. C., Echols, K. R., & Cranor, W. L. (2000). Considerations involved with the use of semipermeable membrane devices for monitoring environmental contaminants. Journal of Chromatography A, 879(1–2), 83–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9673(00)00315-0
97. Pinasseau, L., Wiest, L., Fildier, A., Volatier, L., Fones, G. R., & Mills, G. A. (2019). Use of passive sampling and high resolution mass spectrometry using a suspect screening approach to characterise emerging pollutants in contaminated groundwater and runoff. Science of the Total Environment, 672, 253–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.489
98. Pogorzelec, M., & Piekarska, K. (2018). Application of semipermeable membrane devices for longterm monitoring of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons at various stages of drinking water treatment. Science of The Total Environment, 631–632, 1431–1439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.105
99. Prats, R. M., van Drooge, B. L., Fernández, P., & Grimalt, J. O. (2022). Field comparison of passive polyurethane foam and active air sampling techniques for analysis of gas-phase semi-volatile organic compounds at a remote high-mountain site. Science of the Total Environment, 803, 149738. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149738
100. Rashid, S. R. A., Wan Yaacob, W. Z., & Umor, M. R. (2023). Assessments of heavy metals accumulation, bioavailability, mobility, and toxicity in serpentine soils. Sustainability, 15(2), 1218.
101. Richer, C., Alliot, F., & Thiebault, T. (2026). Passive sampling of chemical targets in wastewaterbased epidemiology: Promise, pitfalls and pathway forward. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 196, 118690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2026.118690
102. Rougerie, J., Martins de Barros, R., Buzier, R., Devillers, D., et al. (2021). Diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT): A suitable tool for metals/metalloids monitoring in continental waterbodies at the large network scale. Science of the Total Environment, 754, 142147
103. Salemi, A., & Schmidt, T. C. (2026). Recent advances and applications of passive sampling devices. LCGC North America
104. Salim, F., & Górecki, T. (2019). Principles of passive sampling and environmental applications. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 191, 643. https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlehtml/2019/em/c9em00215d
105. Saltonstall K, Delgado J, Vargas M and Collin R (2024) Are passive collectors effective samplers of microbes in natural aquatic systems?. Front. Freshw. Sci. 2:1460713. doi: 10.3389/ffwsc.2024.1460713
106. Sangkham, S., Phairuang, W., Sherchan, S. P., Pansakun, N., Munkong, N., Sarndhong, K., Islam, M. A., & Sakunkoo, P. (2024). An update on adverse health effects from exposure to PM2.5. Environmental Advances, 18, 100603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envadv.2024.100603
107. Schuster, J. K., Harner, T., Eng, A., Rauert, C., Su, K., Hornbuckle, K. C., & Johnson, C. W. (2021). Tracking POPs in global air from the first 10 years of the GAPS network (2005–2014). Environmental Science & Technology, 55(14), 9479–9488. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c01705
108. Seethapathy, S., Górecki, T., & Li, X. (2008). Passive sampling in environmental analysis. Journal of Chromatography A, 1184(1–2), 234–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2007.07.070
109. Serasinghe, P., Nguyen, H. T. K., Hepburn, C., Nugegoda, D., & Pettigrove, V. (2024). Use of passive sampling and high resolution mass spectrometry for screening emerging pesticides of concern within surface waters. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances, 13, 100408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazadv.2024.100408
110. Shakallis, A. G., Fallowfield, H., Ross, K. E., & Whiley, H. (2022). The application of passive sampling devices in wastewater surveillance. Water, 14(21), 3478. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14213478
111. Shakallis, A. G., Fallowfield, H., Ross, K. E., & Whiley, H. (2022). The application of passive sampling devices in wastewater surveillance. Water, 14(21), 3478. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14213478
112. Shaw, M., & Mueller, J. F. (2009). Use of passive sampling devices for monitoring organic contaminants in the environment. Environmental Science and Technology, 43(3), 123–130.
113. Shetty, S. S., Deepthi, D., Harshitha, S., Sonkusare, S., Naik, P. B., Kumari, N. S., & Madhyastha, H. (2023). Environmental pollutants and their effects on human health. Heliyon, 9(9), e19496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19496
114. Shi, X., Zhou, J. L., Zhao, H., Hou, L., & Yang, Y. (2014). Application of passive sampling in assessing the occurrence and risk of antibiotics and endocrine disrupting chemicals in the Yangtze Estuary, China. Chemosphere, 111, 344–351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.03.139
115. Silva, A. S. da, Santos, R. M. S., De Marco, P. G., Rezende, V. H. M., & Marques de Miranda, D. (2025). Neurodevelopmental outcomes associated with early life exposure to heavy metals: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 22(8), 1308. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22081308
116. Singh, A. P., Singh, B., & Sagar, P. (2024). Pollution in 21st century: Challenges and solutions. In Environment protection: Challenges for the future (ISBN: 978-81-971444-8-6).
117. Smith, A. V., Garza-Rubalcava, U., Shen, X., & Reible, D. (2022). Partial loading of performance reference compounds in passive samplers and its effect on the fractional approach to steady state. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 10(3), 108044. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2022.108044
118. Smith, K. E. C., & Jeong, Y. (2021). Passive sampling and dosing of aquatic organic contaminant mixtures for ecotoxicological analyses. Environmental Science & Technology, 55(14), 9538–9547
119. Söderström, H. S., & Bergqvist, P.-A. (2004). Passive air sampling using semipermeable membrane devices at different wind-speeds in situ calibrated by performance reference compounds. Environmental Science & Technology, 38(18), 4828–4834. https://doi.org/10.1021/es049637
120. Stuer-Lauridsen, F. (2005). Review of passive accumulation devices for monitoring organic micropollutants in the aquatic environment. Environmental Pollution, 136(3), 503–524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2004.12.004
121. Sultana, T., Eysseric, E., Segura, P. A., Helm, P. A., Kleywegt, S., & Metcalfe, C. D. (2024). Passive sampling with targeted and non targeted analysis as an “early warning” of water soluble contaminants in the Great Lakes. Journal of Great Lakes Research. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jglr.2024.102297
122. Sunyer-Caldú, A., Benedetti, B., Valhondo, C., Martínez-Landa, L., Carrera, J., Di Carro, M., Magi, E., & Diaz-Cruz, M. S. (2023). Using integrative samplers to estimate the removal of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in a WWTP and by soil aquifer treatment enhanced with a reactive barrier. Science of The Total Environment, 867, 161466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161466
123. Szczęsna, D., Wieczorek, K., & Jurewicz, J. (2023). Exposure to endocrine active persistent pollutants and endometriosis: A review of current epidemiological studies. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30(6), 13974–13993. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-24785-w
124. Tadić, Đ., Manasfi, R., Bertrand, M., Sauvêtre, A., & Chiron, S. (2022). Use of passive and grab sampling and high resolution mass spectrometry for non targeted analysis of emerging contaminants and their semi quantification in water. Molecules, 27(10), 3167. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27103167
125. Tan, T. (2024). The characteristics, sources, and health risks of volatile organic compounds. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. Retrieved from PMC.
126. Taylor, R. B., Toteu Djomte, V., Bobbitt, J. M., Hering, A. S., Chen, S., & Chambliss, C. K. (2020). Effects of environmentally relevant concentration exposure profiles on Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Sampler sampling rates. Environmental Science & Technology, 54(14), 8848–8856.
127. Terry, B., & Shakya, K. M. (2024). Monitoring gaseous pollutants using passive sampling in the Philadelphia region. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 74, 52–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2023.2279733
128. Umeh, A. C., Hassan, M., Egbuatu, M., Zeng, Z., Al Amin, M., Samarasinghe, C., & Naidu, R. (2023). Multicomponent PFAS sorption and desorption in common commercial adsorbents: Kinetics, isotherm, adsorbent dose, pH, and ionic strength effects. Science of the Total Environment, 904, 166568. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166568
129. Umudi, E. Q., Apuyor, S. E., Clark, P. D., Eresanya, O. I., Onadje, F. O., Chikwe, I. S., Onwugbuta, G. C., Oyagbarha, E., Anyanwu, G. C., & Obruche, E. K. (2025). Assessment of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) concentration in different fish drying methods. Journal of Basic and Applied Science Research (JOBASR), 3(6, Supplement), 47–56. https://doi.org/10.4314/jobasr.v3i6.6s
130. Uzoekwe, S. A., & Ikpesu, T. O. (2019). Assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in ambient air of oil producing communities in Yenagoa and its environs. Journal of the Chemical Society of Nigeria, 44(2), 359–371
131. Uzoekwe, S. I., & Ahonkhai, S. I. (2008). Passive method of monitoring and ion-chromatographic determination of ambient sulphur dioxide in University of Benin (Ugbowo Campus), Benin-City. Environmental Science: An Indian Journal, 3(1), 116–118.
132. Varatharajan, G. R., Ndayishimiye, J. C., & Nyirabuhoro, P. (2025). Emerging contaminants: A rising threat to urban water and a barrier to achieving SDG aligned planetary protection. Water, 17(16), 2367. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17162367
133. Vested, A., Giwercman, A., Bonde, J. P., & Toft, G. (2014). Persistent organic pollutants and male reproductive health. Asian Journal of Andrology, 16(1), 71–80. https://doi.org/10.4103/1008- 682X.122345
134. Vincent N. Okafor, Daniel O. Omokpariola, Blessing I. Tabugbo, & Gloria F. Okoliko (2024). Ecological and health risk assessments of heavy metals in surface water sediments from Ifite Ogwari community in Southeastern Nigeria. Discover Environment.
135. Vrana, B., Allan, I. J., Greenwood, R., Mills, G. A., Domini, C. E., & Sanchez Portal, J. A. (2019). Passive sampling techniques for monitoring organic contaminants in water. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 113, 47–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2019.02.006
136. Vrana, B., Allan, I. J., Greenwood, R., Mills, G. A., Dominiak, E., & Svensson, K. (2007). Configurations and calibration methods for passive sampling techniques. Journal of Chromatography A, 1168, 226–235.
137. Vrana, B., Allan, I. J., Greenwood, R., Mills, G., Dominiak, E., Svensson, K., Knutsson, J., & Morrison, G. (2005). Passive sampling techniques for monitoring pollutants in water. Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 24(10), 845–868. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2005.06.006
138. Vrana, B., Mills, G. A., Allan, I. J., Dominiak, E., Svensson, K., Knutsson, J., Morrison, G., & Greenwood, R. (2007). Passive sampling techniques for monitoring pollutants in water. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 26(7), 703–712. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2007.05.006
139. Wang, C., Yang, T., Zhao, Y., Herath, H. M. S. K., & Shi, Z. (2025). The potential degradability of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in soil: A perspective from soil aggregates. Environmental Pollution, 377, 126461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2025.126461
140. Wang, L., Liu, R., Liu, X., & Gao, H. (2020). Sampling Rate of Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Sampler (POCIS): Influence Factors and Calibration Methods. Applied Sciences, 10(16), 5548. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10165548
141. Wang, Y., Chen, G., Yang, Y., Zhang, Z., Zhang, R., Wang, P., & Zhang, H. (2025). Anthropogenic emissions shape long-term changes in PM2.5 concentrations and health risks in China. EcoEnvironment & Health, 4(4), 100198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eehl.2025.100198
142. Wania, F., & Mackay, D. (1999). The evolution of mass balance models of persistent organic pollutant fate in the environment. Environmental Pollution, 100(1–3), 223–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0269-7491(99)00093-7
143. Wania, F., & Shunthirasingham, C. (2020). Passive air sampling for semi-volatile organic chemicals. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts, 22(10), 1925–2002. https://doi.org/10.1039/d0em00194e
144. Water Research Review. (2024). Passive sampling in water: Calibration, exposure time, and equilibrium effects. Water Research, 230, 119748. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0043135424009242
145. World Health Organization (WHO). (2021). WHO global air quality guidelines. Geneva: WHO.
146. Wu, X., & Zheng, X. (2022). Biomagnification of persistent organic pollutants from terrestrial and aquatic invertebrates to higher trophic organisms. Environmental Science & Technology.
147. Yu, X., Wang, Y., Watson, P., Yang, X., & Liu, H. (2024). Application of passive sampling device for exploring the occurrence, distribution, and risk of pharmaceuticals and pesticides in surface water. The Science of the total environment, 908, 168393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168393
148. Yu, Y., et al. (2023). Limitations and uncertainties in passive air sampling. Atmospheric Measurement Techniques, 16, 1023–1040.
149. Zakari Jiya, A., Frazzoli, C., Obasi, C. N., Babatunde, B. B., Patrick Iwuanyanwu, K. C., & Orisakwe, O. E. (2022). Pharmaceutical and personal care products as emerging environmental contaminants in Nigeria: A systematic review. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology, 94, 103914. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2022.103914
150. Zhang, Q., Liu, J., & Li, M. (2022). Evaluation of low-density polyethylene passive samplers for hydrophobic contaminants in soils. Environmental Pollution, 298, 118821.
151. Zhang, Z., Hibberd, A., & Zhou, J. L. (2008). Analysis of emerging contaminants in sewage effluent and river water: comparison between spot and passive sampling. Analytica chimica acta, 607(1), 37– 44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2007.11.024
152. Zhu, Q., Ji, J., Tang, X., Wang, C., & Sun, H. (2023). Bioavailability assessment of heavy metals and organic pollutants in water and soil using DGT: A review. Applied Sciences, 13(17), 9760.
153. Zimmerman, J. H., Schumacher, B., Lutes, C. C., Cosky, B., & Hayes, H. (2025). Long term performance of passive volatile organic compounds (VOCs) samplers for indoor air. Environments, 12(8), 267. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12080267
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Author(s)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Articles published in the Journal of Advanced Multidisciplinary Studies (JAMS) are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0), unless otherwise stated. Authors retain copyright of their work and grant JAMS the right of first publication.
